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Introduction
Their are a variety of worldview in India. (A friend once jokingly said that there were the “three Ms – Marx, Macaulay, and Maharishi”.) It is not surprising that there are a multiplicity of historical narratives. For the purpose of this webpage we will take two perspectives on the development of North Indian music. The first section will approach the subject from a historically verifiable perspective. The second second will approach the subject from a Hindu mythological perspective.
The reason that we are taking this approach is simple. An objective approach gives a picture which is much closer to historical reality, but it fails to put things in a cultural perspective. Conversely the mythological approach shows the cultural significance very clearly, even if it falls short of historical accuracy.
Objective Approach
There are many important events in the history of Indian music. These milestones show clearly the development of musical thought from early history to the present day.
EARLY HISTORY – The early history of Indian music may be explained by the Indo-European theory. According to this theory, there was a culture, or group of cultures who were so successful that they spread throughout Europe and parts of Asia. Although no one knows where they came from, present thought tends to place their origins somewhere in Eurasia, either north of the Black sea or north of the Caspian (Mallory 1989). Within this family there are several major groups. Indo-Aryan is a group which has special significance for India because this is the language and culture which generated the Vedas and other classical texts of ancient India. The classical music of India is said to have its roots in this culture.
The connection between Indo-European expansion and Indian music may be seen in mythology. Mythology refers to music being brought to the people of India from a place of celestial beings. This mythical land (Gandharva Desh) is usually equated with heaven. However, some are of the opinion that this mythical land could actually be Kandahar in what is the modern Afghanistan. Therefore, the myths of music being given to the world by the celestial beings (gandharva) may actually represent a cultural connection with this ancient Indo-Aryan homeland.
Further evidence may be seen in musical structure. In the first few centuries B.C.E., Indian music was based upon seven modes (scales). It is probably no coincidence that Greek music was also based upon seven modes. Furthermore, the Indian scales follow the same process of modulation (murchana) that was found in ancient Greek music. Since Greece is also Indo-European, this is another piece of evidence for the Indo-European connection.
VEDAS – The link to Sanskrit is another strong indication of Indo-European roots. Many of the earliest texts were written in Sanskrit. It is also generally believed that classical music is derived from the Samaveda. However it should be stressed that this belief is hard to justify because intermediate forms have never been found. (more info.)
In the final analysis, the roots of classical music being Indo-European are a reflection of modern paradigms concerning ancient Indian history. Although supporting evidence may be slim, conflicting evidence is conspicuous by its absence. Until we are faced with significant conflicting evidence we should accept the Indo-European theory.
NATYASHASTRA – The nature of music in prehistoric India may be obscure, but the picture begins to become clear in the first few centuries B.C.E. In particular the Natyashastra stands out as a major text of this period.
The Natyashastra is the oldest surviving text on stagecraft in the world. It is believed to have been written by Bharata Muni between 200 C.E and 200 B.C.E. However there are scholars who believe that it may have been written by various authors at different times.
It is believed that the Natyashastra is based upon the much older Natya Sutras. Unfortunately there are no surviving copies of the Natya Sutras.
The Natyashastra is incredibly wide in its scope. It covers stage-design, music, dance, makeup, virtually every aspect of stagecraft. It is very important to the musician because it is the only text which gives such detail about the music and instruments of the period.
JATI – During the time of the Natyashastra , the basis for the music was referred to, as “jati”. The word literally means a “collection” or a “caste”; but in the musical sense it means “mode”. (This definition should not be confused with the jati of our rhythmic theory, nor should it be confused with the number of notes in a rag.) The texts describe seven shuddha jati which were “pure modal forms”. These modes were linked by a process of modulation (murchana). There were an additional 11 vikrit-jati (“mixed modal forms”) which were not linked in such a simple fashion.
We do not know much about the style, but it is clear that it was distinct from the rag. This is indicated by the fact that the jati enjoyed some degree of popularity for some centuries after the introduction of rag. Furthermore, from a theoretical standpoint, the jati allowed a diminished 5th (i.e., komal pancham), while rags do not. (more information on jati.)
BRIHADDESHI – The first millennium provides us with several texts which show the evolution of Indian music. The Brihaddeshi written by Matanga (circa 700 C.E.) is very important. It is in this work that we first find the word “rag” mentioned. However, there is some doubt whether the concept was the same as it is today. Another important text is the “Sangeet Ratnakar” by Sharangdev. This work, written around the thirteenth century, gives extensive commentaries about numerous musical styles that existed at that time.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD – Perhaps one of the most significant milestones in the development of Indian music was the life of Amir Khusru (Bhatkhande 1934)(born circa 1253C.E., died 1325C.E.). There is a tendency among Indians to attribute the development of almost everything to him. He is erroneously referred to as the inventor of the sitar and tabla and numerous musical forms which did not develop until many centuries after his death. Although the extent of his contribution to Indian music is more legendary than factual, he nevertheless symbolises a crucial turning point in the development of Indian music. Amir Khusru is an icon representing a growing Persian influence on the music. This influence was felt to a greater extent in the North than in the South. The consequence of this differing degree of influence ultimately resulted in the bifurcation of Indian music into two distinct systems; the Hindustani sangeet of the North and the Carnatic sangeet of the South.
The musical career of Tansen is another landmark in the development of Indian Music (Mital 1960). He is significant because he symbolises the maturing of the north Indian system as a distinct entity from south Indian music.
MODERN PERIOD – The eighteenth century marks the birth of many of the musical forms that we think of today. Dadra, kheyal, thumri and a host of other forms are traceable to this period. Sadarang, and Adarang are two men who have made particular contributions in this matter. (The history of the kheyal is interesting in its on right.)
The early part of the 20th century brings the most recent revolution in north Indian music. This is provide by two people: V. N. Bhatkhande and V. D. Paluskar. These two men revolutionised the concept of Indian music. Paluskar is responsible for the introduction of the first music colleges while Bhatkhande is responsible for the introduction of an organised system which reflects current performance practice. Both men are also responsible for the development and popularisation of a modern musical notation.
In the preceding section we have given a fair description of the Indian concept of Sangeet. This threefold art-form of vocal music, instrumental music and dance, provides the foundation for the classical arts in India. As in any art, the ultimate goal is the emotional quality. The primary musical vehicle for the conveyance of this emotion is rag.
Mythological Origins of Sangeet
We must look at mythology to really see the significance that Indian music (sangeet) has to Indian society. This is easily illustrated in the story concerning its origin. Perhaps the clearest mythological raison de etre may be found in Bharata’s Natyashastra (Rangacharya 1966):
Once, a long time ago, during the transitional period between two Ages it so happened that people took to uncivilised ways, were ruled by lust and greed, behaved in angry and jealous ways with each other and not only gods but demons, evil spirits, yakshas and and such like others swarmed over the earth. Seeing this plight, Indra and other gods approached god Brahma and requested him to give the people a toy (Kridaniyaka), but one which could not only be seen but heard and this should turn out a diversion (so that people gave up their bad ways)
Although it was decided to give the celestial art of sangeet to mankind, a suitable human had to be found who was capable of receiving this gift. Sangeet had always been in the realm of the demigods (gandharva. A super-human of superior spiritual ability was required to convey this celestial art-form to the world of man. It fell upon the great sage Narada to be the first mortal recipient of this divine art. Through Narada, we are indebted for the presence of classical music.
WHAT IS SANGEET? – Sangeet is a word which doesn’t really translate into English. In its most general sense it is considered synonymous with the term “music”; however it is actually a threefold art-form of vocal music, instrumental music, and dance. Since classical dance is also a component, it is not strictly synonymous to the Western term “music”.
There is a historical reason why sangeet is composed of these three art-forms. In the Vedic and post Vedic period it was customary to perform mythological dramas. These dramas used dancers to mime the story, instrumentalists to play the musical accompaniment, and vocalists to tell and sing the story.
There is a standard terminology whenever one wishes to be specific. Dance is referred to as “nritya“, vocal is referred to as “gayaki”, and instrumental is known as “vadhya sangeet”.
GURU / SHISHYA SYSTEM – The introduction of this art-form to the mortal world was only the first step. Traditional pedagogy had to accommodate it. Classical music is considered more than mere entertainment; it is a moral and spiritual redeemer. Therefore, the divine qualities inherent in the art-form imply certain prerequisites; key among them are guru, vinaya and sadhana (Shankar 1968). This translates to teacher, humility, and discipline. The guru, or teacher is the most important prerequisite in traditional musical pedagogy. Music is said to be a guru mukha-vidhya (i.e., knowledge which must come from a teacher). This is considered the highest form of knowledge.
Traditional pedagogy is based upon the transfer of knowledge from the teacher (guru) to the disciple (shishya or shagird) in an unbroken tradition (parampara) (Courtney 1980). The tradition of guru-shishya-parampara extends back countless millennia. The second prerequisite is vinaya (humility). This also reflects the divine origins of the art-form. Classical music is said to be a worship that involves both the listener and the artist alike. Any negative emotions such as arrogance (abhiman) becomes an impediment. This is an impediment from both the divine aspect as well as a matter of simple pedagogy (e.g., “If you think you already know everything, then what is there to learn?”) The final prerequisite for a student of classical music is sadhana (discipline and practice). Sadhana is necessary at two levels. At one level, the divine origins of the art-form require that the student “be prepared” to be a recipient of this knowledge. However, from a simple pedagogic standpoint, the music is so incredibly difficult that if the student does not devote countless hours of practice spread over many years, the student certainly will not be able to master the music.
CHARACTERISTICS – This may clarify many points of pedagogy, but what about the art-form itself? Any art must deal with the topic of aesthetics. The Indian tradition has much to say on this point as well.
| The Nine Moods (Nava Rasa) |
| Shringar – Love Hasya – Comic Karuna – Sadness Raudra – Furious Veera – Heroic Bhayanak – Terrible Vibhats – Disgusting Adbhuta – Wonderment Shanta – Peace |
RAG – This acoustic vehicle is known as rag. Rag may be thought of as the melodic foundation upon which classical Indian music is based. During the last few centuries it was customary to anthropomorphise the rag in the form of gandharvas (demigods) and apsaras (celestial nymphs).
The divine quality of music is perhaps best illustrated in nad siddha. This is the ability to perform miracles by singing or playing certain rags. The most famous miracle-working musician was Tansen (Garg 1984). It is often said that he was able to create fire by singing rag Dipak, or create rain by singing rag Megh Malhar.
We have seen how this art-form is considered divine. This divine quality influences concepts such as aesthetics and pedagogy. The reverence that Indians have for this system may only be seen in a traditional approach.
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Democratizing Indian Popular Music: From Cassette Culture to the Digital Era
Thumri, Ghazal, and Modernity in Hindustani Music Culture